Internship Reading Overview

As part of my internship, I will be reading professional literature for the field in which I'm working and writing abstracts for that literature. For every twenty hours I work, I will write an abstract of one article or book chapter I have read. Since I am doing this internship for 3 credits and working 180 hours total, this should work out to a total of 9 readings.

On Wednesday, January 27th, Brad and I discussed possible reading material, and he suggested several books from which I will select chapters. Most of my reading will probably come from these books:

Reilly, J. M. (1986). Care and Identification of 19th-Century Photographic Prints. Eastman Kodak Company.
ISBN: 0-87985-365-4

Ritzenthaler, M. L.; G. J. Munoff; & M. S. Long. (1984). Archives & Manuscripts: Administration of Photographic Collections. Chicago, IL: Society of American Archivists.
ISBN: 0-931828-61-9

Wilhelm, H. (1993). The Permanence and Care of Color Photographs: Traditional and Digital Color Prints, Color Negatives, Slides, and Motion Pictures. Grinnell, Iowa: Preservation Publishing Company.
ISBN: 0-911515-00-3

Ritzenthaler, M. L. & D. Vogt-O'Connor. (2006). Photographs: Archival Care and Management. Chicago, IL: Society of American Archivists.
ISBN: 1-931666-17-2

Mahard, Martha. (May 24, 2007). Describing Photographs in the Online Environment: SAA Workshop. Bloomington, IN: Society of American Archivists.

Wednesday, January 27, 2010

I spent first part of the morning scanning negatives for the basketball project, which we hope to have completed soon.

Afterwards, Brad and I went to the reading room, where he showed me how he tries to identify unknown subjects in photographs. A relative of one of IU's first basketball players has loaned several photographs to us so they can be scanned and made available through the IU archives, but several of the people and locations in the images are unidentified. In particular, there are two photographs of unknown men who were probably IU students.

Since it is possible that the unknown people in the images might be friends of the basketball player, we began by finding out whether the player was in a fraternity, since the others might then be members, as well. He did belong to a fraternity, so we checked the photographs of that fraternity in the yearbooks covering the years he was at IU, but were unable to match any of the people in those images with the photographs we had.

Since the photographs identified the towns in which they were taken, we used the yearbooks to find men at IU who were from those towns, information which used to be included in early IU yearbooks. This provided us with three or four possible names for our unknown men. We then began going through the yearbooks page by page, since they show the students not individually in alphabetical order, but rather in groups by department. We didn't identify the unknown people, but we only got through one yearbook while I was working. Brad was going to continue trying to identify the two men.

Tuesday, January 26, 2010

Today, I continued working on locating images of that specific basketball player from the 1970s. The 1972 contact sheets* didn't have any information about the dates or opponents of the games pictured, so we used a few different techniques to identify them. The easiest and most obvious technique was to look at the jerseys of the opposing team and compare them to the list of games in that season's media guide. However, there were images from one game in which the opposing players' jerseys said only "State." We weren't sure whether this referred to Michigan State, Ball State, or another school with a similar name.

Once we narrowed down the possibilities to two dates by looking at the media guide's list of teams played at IU during that season (since Photographic Services only photographed home games), Brad had me go to the 1972 and 1973 yearbooks and the 1972 and 1973 Alumni Magazines near those dates to look for any images used in those publications which came from one of our unidentified prints. I wasn't able to locate any useful information in these publications; however, in examining the the contact sheets for the images, I found faint writing which Brad and I hadn't seen initially indicating the opponent and game date, so we were able to identify all the images.


*Contact sheets are prints produced from negatives in which the images from multiple negatives are printed onto one sheet. With the aid of a loupe, this allows the images to be quickly reviewed without unnecessary handling of the negatives.

Wednesday, January 20 and Monday, January 25, 2010

Wednesday, January 20, 2010

On Wednesday, I finished going through the Biology and Botany prints and negatives, transferred all the information on those prints to the negative envelopes, and sleeved the negatives. I'll be doing this throughout my internship in preparation for the new database, into which we should be able to start entering images from the Photographic Services collection in mid-February, according to the Digital Library Program.

Photographic Services (or Photoservices), an Indiana University service which provides photographers for university events and creates large, high-quality prints of images, today exists as IU Photographics.

I also continued working on locating negatives for the basketball project. This time I was looking at images of men's basketball from the 1960s and 1970s.


Monday, January 25, 2010

Today, I continued scanning negatives of men's basketball from the 1970s. I worked on locating images of a particular player. In general, we will try to work from a student's final year on the team backwards to his or her earlier years, since the best shots of players are usually taken during their later years on the team.

As part of the ongoing preparation for the new database, I also pulled the Photoservices prints and negatives of the construction of Beck Chapel, transferred the information from the prints to the negative envelopes, and sleeved the negatives.

Tuesday, January 19, 2010

Today I finished scanning the slides of opera productions. I'm including an image from a 2001 production of Madame Butterfly. It looks like it was a really beautiful show! To give you an idea of the level of detail in the actual scans we're creating for the opera department, that image is saved at 400 dpi (it's been shrunk a little even from that for this blog--click on it to see it at 400 dpi). The full-sized scans are 2400 dpi.

Now that the opera project is complete, I'll be working on scanning images of IU basketball games and players for the new basketball practice facility near Assembly Hall. The lobby of the practice facility will include exhibits on basketball throughout IU's history, so we are finding and scanning images to be used in the exhibits.

The previous negatives I'd worked with were all 35mm, but many of the basketball images are 120mm. The process for scanning them is basically the same, but they are scanned at 1400 dpi rather than 2400 dpi, since they are larger.

Tracking down the images for these basketball exhibits can be a pretty elaborate process. We're given the names of players and games of which the athletic department would like to have pictures, and then we try to locate appropriate images. Photographs in which each subject is identified, such as photographs of the entire team or individual portraits, can be located relatively easily by searching the IU Archives' "Ask Sam" database, but action shots of particular players are a little more difficult to find. Brad keeps the media guides released each year for the sports played at IU, and we have a guide put together by a local IU basketball enthusiast that lists by season every basketball game played at IU with the date and final score for each game, as well as all the people on the team that season with their jersey numbers. It's a really fantastic tool.

When someone wants images of a particular player, we use this guide to determine what years he played and what his jersey number was. Photographic Services photographed IU home games, so we go to the files of reference prints in the Photographic Services sports collection, and start going through the file for each year during which the player was on the team to locate the photographs of basketball games. These reference prints often contain many images on one sheet, so we use a loupe (a kind of magnifier) to examine each image for good shots of that player, whom we identify by his jersey number. It can be pretty painstaking work. I spent part of my day today going through photographs of games from the 1960s looking for good images of two particular players.

Tomorrow we're supposed to get a new computer and scanner installed, so it should be an exciting day!

Monday, January 18, 2010

Today I learned how to scan slides, which was pretty similar to scanning negatives. Most of the settings are the same--Color, transparency, 2400 dpi for the resolution--but the program has to be set to "positive" rather than "negative." The slides were a little easier to handle than the negatives, they scan more quickly, and they seem to attract less dust, so I had much less clean-up to do in Photoshop. However, the colors on some of the slides appeared a little dull and faded, so we sometimes increase the contrast a bit to make them look sharper. I was working on images of opera productions again, and I enjoyed seeing more pictures of previous shows. They've had some really beautiful sets and costumes.

I also started pulling some reference prints and negatives from the Indiana University Photoservices collection in preparation for entering scanned negatives into the new database we will start using soon. Since only the negatives will be scanned, we need to make sure all the information on the reference prints is also written on the envelopes of negatives so it can be included in the database. A lot of the reference prints have notes on the back about the subject of the photograph.

Today I worked on pulling negatives for the prints in one of the "Biology and Botany" folders, and Brad and I discussed some of the strange images that appear in older collections of photo-archives, particularly in photographs of experiments in science departments. I'm a little nervous at the prospect of running across images of animal experiments in some of the earlier photographs. Fortunately, the folder I was working with had nothing more unusual than some images from the 1930s of what looked like mold growing in Petri dishes. Most of the images are either portraits of faculty or show students and faculty at work, often surrounded by racks of test tubes. It's a fascinating glimpse of some of IU's science programs in the 1930s and 1940s.

First Week

I started my internship at Indiana University's Office of University Archives and Records Management on Monday, January 11th. For the rest of the semester, I will be spending my Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday mornings working under the supervision of the Photograph Curator, Brad Cook. Most of my previous archival experience is in processing collections containing few photographs, so this internship will give me an opportunity to learn more about working with photographs, slides, and negatives, as well as methods for digitizing those materials. My work will include pulling materials for researchers, scanning those materials, and adding metadata to digital images. I will also be learning about how to fulfill researcher requests for materials and how to handle requests for permission to publish images from the collections of the University Archives.

The Indiana University Archives photographs collections are located in an office one floor above the main office, so on Monday morning I headed upstairs, where Brad gave me a tour of the space and an orientation to the largest collections. The collections include photographs, slides, negatives, and reference prints for some of the negatives. I spent the rest of my time that day filing envelopes of photographs, reference prints, and negatives to familiarize myself with the location and organization of each of the main collections. I'll be spending a little time each day refiling these envelopes of materials requested by researchers.

On Tuesday, I started working on fulfilling my first request. Since the request came from a university department and is submitted every year, my supervisor gave me permission to write about it in some detail.

It came from the Indiana University Opera department, which requests images of previous opera productions each year in preparation for publicizing the upcoming season. After I located all the negatives that the department had asked for, Brad showed me how to scan them and use Photoshop to remove dust specks from the images. On Wednesday, I scanned and retouched the rest of the negatives myself. I loved the production of Die Zauberflöte (The Magic Flute) put on by Indiana University last November, so it was a treat for me to get to see images of previous productions. It looks like they've put on a lot of really fantastic shows!

The first week of my internship went really well, and I'm looking forward to my next! I think this internship will be fun and will provide me with some really great experience in an area of archival work that I know little about.

Reading 9

Foster, Anne L. (2006). Minimum Standards Processing and Photograph Collections. Archival Issues, 30(2), 107-118.

While I did not process collections of photographs as part of my internship, I will likely have to handle such collections or collections containing a significant number of photographs during my professional career. This article provides a helpful overview of the ways in which the "More Product, Less Process" (MPLP) approach to archival processing was used by the University of Alaska, Fairbanks Archives to make large collections of photographs, which their employees had been trying to process for years, accessible to researchers by finding new processing standards.

The author begins by describing previous attempts by the archive to handle its growing photographs collection. These included a vertical file (1966-1980) in which all the photographs in the collections were kept. Photographs were removed from their original collections, which often meant that provenance information was lost. From 1980 to 1990, the archive tried to maintain provenance information by keeping the photographs with the collections with which they arrived, but filing them separately from the rest of the materials in the collection and organizing them into the same categories used in the vertical file system. From 1990 to 2003, the archive maintained a photo database, but the ever-larger collections which the archive received quickly overwhelmed the database. Additionally, each of these methods required time consuming, item-level processing.

The Alaskan archivists first applied the MPLP approach to the William 0. Field Papers, which included about 40,000 photographs. They did not process the items at the item level, deciding that researchers were unlikely to be interested in specific images, and they merely placed fragile items in a cold-storage vault rather than spending large amounts of time on conservation efforts.

They then received a grant to test the MPLP process on a large variety of collections, and they found the approach to work very well. They noted that one of its particular strengths was its flexibility--it does not prescribe a particular level of processing, but rather that only the minimum amount of processing necessary to make a collection accessible be performed until use justifies further processing. In contrast to their previous methods, they did not weed, number, or sleeve photographs until they received a request for a copy of an image, at which point it was necessary to assign numbers to all the photographs in the series as part of their photograph reproduction workflow. Only certain categories of images--particularly fragile items, pre-gold rush images, images related to "hot topics," and images from collections which came with a donation to finance extra processing--received the level of processing and conservation treatments they had once attempted for all their collections.

They note that one case in which MPLP processing would seemingly not be ideal is when a collection will be digitized, since this generally necessitates describing the images at the item level. However, they tried to be more rigorous in their appraisal of collections before they were digitized, discarding unnecessary images, and they tried to reduce the amount of metadata added to the images to save time. However, they found that the software they used to manage and make their photographs available in an online environment was designed for detailed description and did not allow them to automatically combine collection-level metadata with batch imported images.

Overall, this article provides a good overview of how the popular MPLP approach to processing can be applied to photographs and addresses the potential pitfalls of using this technique on collections of images.

Reading 8

Shatford, Sara (1986). Analyzing the Subject of a Picture: A Theoretical Approach. Cataloging and Classification Quarterly, 6(3), pp. 39-62.

Found in: Mahard, Martha (May 24, 2007). Describing Photographs in the Online Environment: SAA Workshop. Bloomington, IN: Society of American Archivists.

While doing my internship in the photographs department of the Indiana University Archives, I have spent a lot of time working with the Charles W. Cushman photographs collection, both when I've been filling out permission-to-publish forms for Cushman images and when I've been confirming new information people have given us about the images. The Cushman collection includes extensive subject headings and other tags which allow the images to be searched in a variety of ways, and this made me interested in how an archivist should go about selecting subject headings for such a digital collection.

This article does not prescribe a particular classification system or set of procedures, but rather examines in a more general way the "theoretical basis for identifying and classifying the kinds of subjects a picture may have" (39).

The author begins by discussing the ways in which a collection of pictures may be used, since the ways in which a collection will be used should influence the way in which subjects are assigned to its images. Shatford notes that images may be used by "historians, teachers and students, illustrators, architects, designers and hobbyists, collectors and curators of various objects, even by librarians" (41), and that such researchers may use pictures both as a source of information and as illustrations for research. She also points out that researchers with different backgrounds and interests may use the same image in vastly different ways. Most importantly, researchers may seek images in a variety of ways. For instance, they may want an image of a specific person or event, an image of a particular time period or type of event, or even an image that illustrates an abstract theme.

Shatford uses art historian Erwin Panofsky's theory that there are three levels of meaning in works of art as the basis for her analysis of the types of subjects any image can have. Panofsky identifies these levels as pre-iconography, iconography, and iconology. The pre-iconography is the "primary or natural matter, subdivided into factual and expressional" (43). Factual elements include identifiable objects while expressional elements include the "mood" of a work. The first is objective and the second subjective, and Shatford distinguishes the two by identifying the first as what the image is "of" and the second as what the image is "about." The author writes that iconography "incorporates the identification of specific (not generic) objects, as in the sitter for a portrait; it also incorporates the identification of images representing certain ideas, themes, or concepts, as in stories or allegories" (44). Panofsky identifies the third level of meaning, iconology, as the "intrinsic meaning of content" (45), but Shatford indicates that these level of meaning cannot be included in subject indexes in a reliable way. She also notes that all images are both generic and specific--for instance, an image of the Golden Gate Bridge is both an image of a specific thing as well as a representation of a type of object, such as bridges or architecture.

Based on these theories, Shatford creates a "faceted classification" for the subjects of images. She writes that "the different facets for the classification of the subjects of pictures may be defined initially as containing the answers to the series of questions Who? What? When? and Where? Each of these basic facets may then be subdivided into aspects based on Of in the specific sense, Of in the generic sense, and About" (48).

Shatford then goes on to explore each of these facets in detail and provide examples of how each facet could be used in the case of a particular image. For instance, in discussing the "Who?" facet, the author takes as an example a photograph of the Guaranty Building in Buffalo, New York designed by Louis Sullivan. She writes that "This picture might have in the Who facet: Sullivan's Guaranty Building (Specific Of); Skyscraper (Generic Of); and Modern Architecture (About--Manifestation of an abstraction)" (50). She also points out that anyone assigning subjects to images should be aware of the issue of images which are reproductions of other works, such as paintings, and be consistent in how he or she assigns subjects to these images.

The next section is devoted to deciding which of all these potential subjects should actually be assigned to a particular image since practical considerations, such as time and money, will almost always limit the number of terms which can be assigned to any particular image. Shatford notes that one of the most important factors in deciding which subjects should be assigned is the users of the collections. For instance, the author indicates that an image should be indexed very differently if it is in a costume museum as opposed to a general collection. In such a specialized museum, the image should be indexed with subjects relevant to people interested in costumes.

Shatford then tackles the question of how best to determine the appropriate depth of indexing. She gives two guidelines for making this determination: the "threshold of detail" and the "threshold of pertinence" (58). The threshold of detail guideline establishes the rule that anything which is "necessarily an integral part of a larger whole" will not be indexed. For instance, if a woman appears in an image, the woman would be indexed, but not her head, hands, etc. The threshold of pertinence guideline indicates that an element is only meaningful enough to be indexed if it is clearly enough represented that someone looking for that element might find the picture useful or if the presence of the element is unusual.

While this article is a theoretical look at how the subject indexing of images should be approached rather than a practical guide on how to do so, the ideas outlined by the author and the questions she raises seem to be a very good starting point for any archivist faced with the task of coming up with a system for assigning subjects to a collection of images.

Reading 7

Ritzenthaler, M. L.; G. J. Munoff; & M. S. Long. (1984). "2. History of Photographic Processes." Archives & Manuscripts: Administration of Photographic Collections. Chicago, IL: Society of American Archivists. (pp. 27-54).
ISBN: 0-931828-61-9

While the chapter "The History of Photographic Printing in the 19th Century" from Care and Identification of 19th-Century Photographic Prints was helpful, its limited scope meant that many photographic processes I might encounter in my work in archives were not covered. This chapter provided a broader overview of the history of photographic processes, and I found it better organized and easier to follow than the previous reading.

The authors begin by explaining that it is essential that archivists be familiar with photographic processes because this information can assist them in dating images and the means by which a photograph was produced influences the types of conservation and preservation treatments most appropriate for that image. After this introduction, the authors provide a brief description of "basic photographic principles" (29), defining negative and positive images and the basic components of photographs, the base, the emulsion, and the light-sensitive salts. They also include a description of the general process used to produce photographic images. This section includes definitions of printing-out papers and developing-out papers. Printing-out papers were most prevalent before 1890 and are placed in direct contact with the negative and exposed to light through the negative--sometimes for more than a day--to produce the image. Developing-out papers are exposed for a much shorter time and do not have to be placed in direct contact with the negative, allowing for prints that are larger than the negative. The exposure does not produce the image on a developing-out paper; rather, the paper must be chemically processed to produce the image. The authors also describe the fixing and toning process.

The majority of the chapter is devoted to sections describing the major photographic processes. Each section gives the history of the process and describes the process itself, including the specific chemicals used and the techniques used by photographers. The sections also often include advice on identifying those processes by examining extant examples. These sections are well-illustrated, and most processes have at least one image to serve as an example.

The earliest processes the authors discuss include daguerreotypes, plain salted prints, the calotype process, platinum prints or platinotypes, and cyanotypes. They also describe processes using collodion emulsions, which include ambrotypes, tintypes, collodion wet plate negatives, and collodion positive transparencies. They then describe processes using albumen emulsions, which include albumen prints and crystoleums.

The authors then devote several sections to discussion photograph formats, which, they emphasize, are not particular processes but rather ways in which all the various types of photographs discussed were presented. The formats they describe include cartes de visite, stereographs, and photo albums.

They then describe photographic processes using gelatin emulsions, which include gelatin dry plate negatives, Eastman paper and gelatin negatives, cellulose nitrate film, safety film, and gelatin silver prints. Another section is devoted to attempts to create "permanent" photographs and photomechanical processes which do not rely on light-sensitive material. The processes they describe include gum bichromate prints, carbon prints, photogravures, woodburytypes, and the collotype process.

They then move on to color processes. The screen plate color processes they describe include the joly plate and the autochrome. The authors then discuss the tri color carbro process, dye transfer prints, chromogenic development materials, modern color prints, and dye diffusion transfer processes (such as Polaroid images).

Overall, this is a very helpful, concise overview of photographic processes that provides useful background for any archivist working with photographs and it would serve as a convenient reference.

Reading 6

Ritzenthaler, M. L.; G. J. Munoff; & M. S. Long. (1984). "3. Appraisal and Collecting Policies." Archives & Manuscripts: Administration of Photographic Collections. Chicago, IL: Society of American Archivists. (pp. 55-70).
ISBN: 0-931828-61-9

This is another book my supervisor recommended I look at, and I selected this chapter because, having taken a course in advanced archival appraisal, I find appraisal interesting and wanted to learn more about how appraisal methodology is applied to photographs. Since most of my work with appraisal has focused on written records, I wanted to to find out whether there are any appraisal considerations specific to photographs.

Up through the 1950s, many archivists "considered photographs to be of secondary importance" (55) to written records, and the relatively small volume of photographs taken in by repositories and uncertainty about how to manage them led to "passive accumulation" of visual records with little attempt to arrange or describe them. However, interest in photographs began increasing in the latter half of the twentieth century, and as demand and the number of photographs in archival holdings increased, it became necessary to start applying appraisal criteria to them.

The authors indicate that, just as in the case of written records, "only a small percentage of photographs have enduring qualities that justify their preservation" (55), and archivists need to be able to appraise the visual records available to them in order to select the best records for their repository. The most basic factor in these decisions is the repository's mission or collecting policy--all appraisal decisions are made within the framework of this policy. The authors note that most photographs will come to a repository as part of collections consisting primarily of written materials that are selected with the guidance of the collecting policy, which will usually ensure that they are relevant to the archives' mission. However, they indicate that "special care should be exercised to adhere to the collection policy and appraisal guidelines" (56) when acquiring individual photographs or collections that consist entirely of visual material.

When developing a photographs collecting policy, the authors indicate that, in addition to the larger mission statement or general collecting policy of the repository, the archivist should also consider whether the repository has the facilities and resources to responsibly care for the photographs, what kind of research use they will receive (for instance, will they primarily be used by researchers seeking to study the photographs themselves or will they more often be used by researchers seeking to illustrate their publications), and the collecting policies of other repositories in the same geographic or subject area.

The chapter lists several factors which archivists should consider when appraising visual records, and these factors are very similar to those used in various appraisal methodologies. The authors identify these factors as evidential value, informational value, research value, age, form, volume, copyright, relationship to other archival materials, and intrinsic value. Much of their elaboration on these factors echoes similar considerations in the broader appraisal literature.

They define evidential value as "evidence of the structure, organization, function, and activities of an institution" (56) and informational/research value as "information contained in the images that is useful to research in topics or subjects unrelated to the original purpose for taking the photograph" (56-57). In the informational/research value factor, the authors include considerations of the reliability or authenticity of the image, the completeness of the visual documentation, and the quality of the images (whether it is in focus, is properly exposed, etc. This seems to be the equivalent of the considerations of legibility and intelligibility in appraising written records).

The age, form, and intrinsic value factors take into consideration the age and form of the photograph, which can give it intrinsic value beyond its content. They authors note that daguerreotypes, ambrotypes, and tintypes all have high intrinsic value due to their age and the fact that they are unique images. Such photographs are valuable as examples of these photographic processes.

The volume of the visual records under consideration is another appraisal factor the authors describe in detail. They indicate that "a series of successive images... may be of great research use in documenting an event or interpreting a subject or topic" (61) compared to "the often fragmentary nature of single photographs" (61). In dealing with a large mass of photographs, such as a collection of photographs from a newspaper, the authors make the interesting recommendation of selecting the most significant group from the larger collection to arrange and describe and store the the remainder as unprocessed materials with minimal inventory control so they are available for research use. The authors indicate that these materials can then be more thoroughly processed if the amount of use they receive merits it. This might be a workable solution for large repositories with significant amounts of space, but it might be less practical for smaller repositories.

The copyright of the photographs is another factor the authors recommend considering when acquiring images. While photographs for which the repository is unable to obtain the copyright can still be used for research purposes, they are less useful for patrons who are looking for images to publish, which is often a major use of archival photograph collections. Archivists should also consider the relationship of the photographs to other archival materials, since photographs which complement or supplement other archival materials may be more valuable.

After summarizing these appraisal considerations, the chapter then goes on to suggest potential sources of photographic collections, such as commercial photographers, newspaper photograph files, photographic clubs and organizations, private collectors, book and antique dealers, and personal collections. In the case of personal collections, the authors recommend conducting an interview with the donor to document as much information about the photographs as possible, and the chapter includes several example forms which can be given to donors to collect this information. The authors also suggest maintaining a "lead file" to keep track of known photograph collections which the repository hopes to eventually add to its collections which can be reviewed periodically.

Overall, while the chapter did not provide many new insights into appraisal, it was still a useful summary of some of the factors to consider when appraising photographs and included some interesting tips and techniques.

Reading 5

Reilly, J. M. (1986). "Chapter I: The History of Photographic Printing in the 19th Century." Care and Identification of 19th-Century Photographic Prints. Eastman Kodak Company. (page 1-13)
ISBN: 0-87985-365-4

Supplementary reading: Nelson, Kenneth E. "A Thumbnail History of the Daguerreotype." The Daguerreian Society. (http://www.daguerre.org/resource/history/history.html)

After reading "Chapter IV: Identification of 19th-Century Photographic and Photomechanical Print Processes" from Reilly's book, I felt I needed more historical context for the various photographic and photomechanical processes he describes. Basic knowledge of the history of photographic and photomechanical processes is useful for any archivist working with photographs, since familiarity with the processes themselves and the times during which they were most popular can potentially assist an archivist in determining the date of an image and may be a factor in how the archivist will care for and handle that image. This chapter provides a good, brief overview of the major photographic printing processes in the nineteenth century. I also supplemented it by reading a brief article on the history of daguerreotypes, since these are not covered in detail in Reilly's book.

While there was a great deal of overlap in the times during which the various photographic processes Reilly describes were used, he provides the following rough timeline for the most significant photographic print processes: salted paper prints, 1840-1855; albumen prints, 1855-1895; gelatin and collodion printing-out prints, 1895-1905; gelatin developing-out prints, 1905-1960; chromogenic color prints, 1960-present.

In 1839, William Henry Fox Talbot created the photogenic drawing process, which provided the basic technology for the silver printing-out papers used in the nineteenth century. Such printing-out papers are distinct from developing-out papers in that, unlike the latter, the creation of the visible image and exposure were simultaneous while developing-out papers required a chemical treatment to create the final image. Talbot improved on the photogenic drawing process, transforming it into the salted paper print process by creating negatives in the camera of either paper or glass which could then be used to multiple positive images. He also introduced a "fixer" which made the final print more stable and photographers began to add extra sizing to the papers used for photographic prints in order to improve the image quality.

The albumen print, which was developed by Louis Desire Blanquart, was a silver paper process which used egg whites to size the paper. This improved the contrast and density of the print and gave it a glossy surface. The process was further refined with the introduction of gold toning, and some photographers used tinted albumen paper or burnished the print to give it an even glossier surface. Further advances to the process in the 1880s and 1890s included the introduction of a baryta layer which provided a buffer between the light-sensitive coating and impurities in the paper and improved the contrast of the prints.

Since all silver print papers, including albumen prints, have a tendency to fade and discolor over time, nineteenth century photographers explored a number of other processes. Carbon prints, which were made with pigments suspended in a bichromated gelatin, were more stable than albumen prints, but the process of creating them was too time-consuming and complex to replace silver papers. The platinotype process "is based on the light sensitivity of certain iron salts which, when irradiated, reduce platinum compounds to metallic platinum" (8). These prints had good image quality and were very stable, but the process was too expensive to replace silver papers. The cyanotype or "blueprint process" was developed in the 1840s and produced images which were fairly stable and inexpensive to produce, but their blue color limited their popularity.

Bromide developing-out paper was developed in the 1880s, but many photographers found them too sensitive and they were primarily used by "amateurs and... firms which made a specialty of enlargements" (11). As such, they did not challenge the dominance of albumen and other printing-out papers.

Gelatin and collodion printing-out papers, which became popular in the 1880s, ultimately replaced albumen paper as the primary type of photographic printing material. The two papers were similar, but collodion printing-out papers produced images of higher quality and with better stability and ultimately became the dominant paper in the production of photographs. Contact-speed developing-out papers became more popular in the 1890s, and sales of these papers surpassed the sale of printing-out papers in 1905.

Overall, this chapter provides a good, but brief, overview of the photographic printing processes of the nineteenth century. It would be more helpful if it included at least a cursory discussion of daguerreotypes, tintypes, and ambrotypes and their relationship to nineteenth century paper prints.

Reading 4

Reilly, J. M. (1986). "Chapter IV: Identification of 19th-Century Photographic and Photomechanical Print Processes." Care and Identification of 19th-Century Photographic Prints. Eastman Kodak Company. (p. 48-72)
ISBN: 0-87985-365-4

Since I'm doing my internship in the photographs department of an archive, I should obviously come out of this experience with some familiarity with nineteenth century photographic processes. I've already looked at some nineteenth century photographic prints with Brad and we will go through more examples before my internship is over, but I thought it would be a good idea to read a little on this topic, as well.

This chapter provides good, systematic guidance on identifying nineteenth century photographic and photomechanical processes. It includes a description of the equipment an archivist needs to perform these identifications, descriptions of the most common processes, a flowchart for identifying these processes, and detailed instructions on how to work through the flowchart. This chapter obviously can't replace hands-on experience with nineteenth century prints, but it is certainly a useful supplement and reference.

A lot can be learned about a print by examining it with the naked eye and with a simple 10X magnifier, which I think would be similar to the loupes we use in the Indiana University Archives photographs department. However, the author also indicates that a 30X stereomicroscope is needed to distinguish between some processes.

While the book is devoted to images on paper supports, the chapter briefly addresses daguerreotypes, ambrotypes, and tintypes. Daguerreotypes were most popular from the 1840s to the 1860s, and Reilly writes that they "consist of a positive image on a thin copper plate with a highly polished, mirror-like coating of silver... In America, daguerreotypes were most often placed in small hinged cases made of wood with a leather or paper covering, or in the so-called 'union cases' made of a molded thermoplastic material" (50). Some of the daguerreotypes from the University Archives collection are in union cases. Reilly indicates that a daguerreotype can be easily identified by "its highly polished silver support and its quality of appearing either as a negative or a positive depending on the angle of view and the direction from which light falls on it" (80).

Reilly writes that ambrotypes and tintypes are similar in that they "[b]oth consist of a positive, physically-developed silver image in a collodion binder on an opaque, non-reflective support... The two processes essentially differ in their supports: ambrotypes have a glass support, while tintypes have a support made of a thin sheet of lacquered iron" (51). He indicates that cased ambrotypes can be distinguished from daguerreotypes by the fact that the image remains positive regardless of the angle at which it is held, and a tintype which has been placed in a case can be identified by holding a magnet against the glass, since this will reveal whether or not there is an iron support.

The bulk of the chapter is devoted to identifying the remaining photographic and photomechanical processes. The first step in this identification is to determine whether the print has a patterned image grain or a continuous tone, since this will be a good indicator of whether it is a true photographic print (continuous tone) or a photomechanical print (patterned image grain). The next step is to look at the layer structure. Nineteenth century photographic prints may have from one to three layers. Some prints consist only of a paper support layer, some have both a paper support and a binder, and some have a baryta layer between the binder and the paper support. A binder is "the transparent layer in a photographic material in which the final image material is suspended and protected" (27) and a baryta layer is "a coating of white-pigmented gelatin which covers the paper support... forming a smooth, reflective substrate for the binder layer" (60). The third and final decision-making step is based on "individual characteristics of the processes," such as "color, typical forms of deterioration, characteristic grain patterns, etc." (53).

After laying out this decision-making process, Reilly provides a flowchart and spends the remainder of the chapter describing in detail how to identify the major photographic and photomechanical processes of the nineteenth century by following this flowchart. The processes he examines are letterpress halftone, photogravure, collotype, salted paper print, cyanotype, platinotype, albumen print, carbon print, woodburytype, gelatin printing-out paper, collodion printing-out paper, matte collodion printing-out paper with gold and platinum toning, and gelatin developing-out paper. Letterpress halftone, photogravure, collotype, and woodburytype are photomechanical processes while the rest are true photographic processes.

Overall, this chapter seems to provide a good overview of the major types of nineteenth century photographic prints and straightforward guidance on how to identify the processes that created them.

Reading 3

Wilhelm, H. (1993). Chapter 7: Monitoring the Long-Term Fading and Staining of Color Photographs in Museum and Archive Collections. The Permanence and Care of Color Photographs: Traditional and Digital Color Prints, Color Negatives, Slides, and Motion Pictures (pp. 239-266). Grinnell, Iowa: Preservation Publishing Company.
ISBN: 0-911515-00-3

This is another chapter Brad recommended I read. It is very relevant to the concerns of archives, since archives often put on exhibits of materials in their collections, including photographic prints. Overall, the chapter's conclusions about the preservation of color prints are a bit bleak--the author indicates that, "Compared with most other types of artistic media, color photographs generally fade and/or stain fairly rapidly when exposed to light on display. And, unlike the dyes and pigments in watercolors, paints, and fabrics... most kinds of color photographs slowly fade and develop overall yellowish stains even when kept in the dark" (239). Since the fading of photographic prints is inevitable under all but the best conditions, this chapter is devoted to determining the limit of tolerable fading and staining on photographs, the monitoring of that deterioration, and the best ways to exhibit photographs in light of these facts. Once the staining and fading limits on a print are reached, Wilhelm indicates that the original print should be permanently stored in dark, cold, humidity-controlled storage and only copies used for display purposes.

Wilhelm notes that carefully monitoring the deterioration of the colors in photographic prints is particularly important since it is often difficult for photographs curators to detect this fading and staining when they view the image repeatedly over the course of their career. While Wilhelm indicates that is is most important that museums and archives monitor the fading of color photographs, he writes that black and white prints should ideally be monitored, as well. Additionally, he writes that any photographs made with processes known to produce unstable prints should be monitored.

The author includes a table on page 258 which provides recommendations for the limits of tolerable fading in color photographs. The density of cyan dye should not change by more than 9%, the density of magenta dye should not change by more than 9%, and the density of yellow dye should not change by more than 13%. (Shifts in the density of the yellow dye do not have as much of an impact on the contrast of the image as do shifts in cyan and magenta, making slightly larger shifts tolerable.)

In order to monitor this deterioration, Wilhelm recommends the use of densitometers and provides instructions on how to calibrate and use these devices. He also gives guidance on how to begin a program for the long-term monitoring of the fading and staining of photographic prints using densitometers. This approach might be useful for large museums and archives, but, while Wilhelm does not give the prices of these devices or filters they use, it seems likely that such devices are outside the budget of the vast majority of archives. To provide examples of monitoring programs using these devices, Wilhelm describes programs at the Art Institute of Chicago and the National Archives, both of which have far more resources than most archives. This limits the usefulness of this section of the chapter to most archivists and curators.

However, the chapter also includes some basic advice which is useful to any photographs curator interested in displaying original prints. Obviously, the prints should be displayed in temperature and humidity-controlled conditions, and a balance must be struck between displaying the photographs under as low a level of light as possible and illuminating them enough to make their details visible to exhibit visitors. In an exhibit put together by the Art Institute of Chicago, the conservator adopted the interesting solution of displaying the most fragile print behind a curtain which the visitors could lift in order to examine the image, minimizing the exposure of the photograph to light as much as possible. Wilhelm also notes that, in the case of traveling exhibits or photographs which have been loaned to another institution, the prints are most vulnerable to fading and staining while they are in transit, when conditions are often not controlled as carefully as they are when the prints are actually on display.

Wilhelm indicates that the available "display time" of a particular print (the amount of time for which it can be exhibited under a particular set of conditions before the limits of tolerable fading and staining are reached) should not be used up under the tenure of one curator--rather, the curator should strive to leave as much display time as possible available for the future. Since some prints may have already undergone significant amounts of staining or fading before they come into the care of a museum or archive, photographs curators may not always have a pristine baseline to which the images can be compared as they deteriorate over time. In this case, Wilhelm recommends that prints which may have reached their fading or staining limit not be exhibited at all and facsimile prints used for display and study.

The author recommends that facsimile copies of prints be made before any fading or staining becomes noticeable. This will extend the lifetime of the original, since the facsimile can sometimes be used for display and research purposes. Wilhelm believes that archives and historical institutions are in a slightly better position than art museums when it comes to displaying photographs, since it is more likely that a facsimile will be acceptable in the context of a historical exhibit--where the content of the image is of greatest interest to the visitor--than in an art museum, where the print itself is the object of interest.

This chapter includes some useful guidelines and common-sense advice for the display of photographs in archives and museums. For those institutions with the resources to monitor the deterioration of images with densitometers, the author also provides detailed guidelines on the use of these devices. For institutions with more limited resources, following the general guidelines provided by the author can allow photographs curators to be reasonably sure that they are exhibiting their materials responsibly.

Reading 2

Wilhelm, H. (1993). Chapter 18: Handling and Preservation of Color Slide Collections: Selection of Films, Slide Mounts, Slide Pages, and Individual Slide Sleeves. The Permanence and Care of Color Photographs: Traditional and Digital Color Prints, Color Negatives, Slides, and Motion Pictures (pp.625-654). Grinnell, Iowa: Preservation Publishing Company.
ISBN: 0-911515-00-3

I chose this chapter as my second reading because Brad recommended it and I frequently handle slides in order to scan them as part of my internship. Since this book is written not only for archivists, but also for professional and amateur photographers and people who manage collections of images, the material in this chapter which focused on providing guidance for the selection of film was not very applicable to archivists, who have little control over the types of film that come into their care. However, the chapter's guidance on the proper storage and handling techniques for slide collections and the author's suggested procedures for creating duplicate, working copies of slides were very pertinent to the needs and concerns of archivists.

Wilhelm begins the chapter by comparing and contrasting the various slide films and mounts on the market and making recommendations for which types and brands a photographer should choose to maximize the life of his or her images. In most cases, the author recommends Fujichrome films and cardboard slide mounts. However, archivists are likely to find themselves responsible for slides made with a wide range of films of greatly varying quality and may encounter other types of slide mounts, including open-frame plastic mounts, glass mounts, and glass mounts with tape binding, all of which present their own preservation challenges. Wilhelm briefly touches on some of the issues that may arise with glass mounts, such as steam clouds between the film and the glass, and how these problems can be minimized.

The author also emphasizes at the beginning of the chapter that slides are similar to negatives in that they are usually unique originals and, as such, should be accorded the same careful treatment and handling as negatives. All "fingerprints, scratches, and abrasion" must be avoided. He notes that this is especially important when the slides will be used as a source for images reproduced in a publication, as slides in an archival collection are likely to be used, since small flaws which can be overlooked when the slide is projected will become more apparent when the image is printed.

When he discusses the preservation of slides, Wilhelm emphasizes the detrimental effects of light on all slides, which is a particular hazard when the slide is frequently projected. He recommends that even slides made with Fujichrome film, the type of film he recommends as one of the most stable available, not have a total accumulated projection time of more than five hours. According to Wilhelm, some other types of slides more prone to fading, such as those made with Kodachrome film, will begin to show deterioration after one hour of accumulated projection time. The ideal solution, Wilhelm argues, is to create duplicate, working copies of slides, and he recommends that Fujichrome duplication film be used for this process. While it seems unlikely that many archives have the resources or the need to create duplicate "working" copies of every slide in their collections, this might be an option for some heavily used slides or those made with particularly unstable films.

The author also points out that not only the light from a projector, but also the ambient light in an office can cause slides to rapidly deteriorate. Wilhelm cites a study which found that the fragile Kodachrome slides lost up to 50% of their magenta dye when exposed to eight weeks of normal office light conditions. In addition, the fading produced by leaving slides exposed to office lighting is often irregular, since slides in this situation are often stacked on top of one another, exposing different parts of the image to varying degrees of light.

However, many types of slides will fade over time even in dark storage, and Wilhelm writes that "[f]or museums and archives, where the goal must be indefinite preservation of color photographs in an essentially unchanged condition, refrigerated storage is mandatory for all present and past slide films" (625). It seems that this is unlikely to be a realistic option for all archives, however. Wilhelm also notes that humidity in slide storage environments should not be allowed to rise above 65%-70% and the temperature should not be allowed to rise above 75 degrees, conditions which are well within the abilities of most archives to achieve.

The author also provides guidance on the selection of slide pages and sleeves. Slide pages are clear, flexible holders for slides which assist in storing and protecting the slides. Wilhelm recommends that all PVC slide pages be avoided. The material can degrade, causing the plasticizers in the PVC to stick to the slides. He suggests polypropylene pages as the best option. The author also recommends that slides be further protected by placing them in individual acetate sleeves and suggests Kimac sleeves provide the best balance of quality and price.

Overall, this chapter provides a thorough discussion of the proper care and handling of slides. It includes a useful summary of the chapter's recommendations on pages 629 and 630, and the chapter concludes with lists of suppliers grouped by type of product. For instance, the chapter lists five suppliers under "Plastic Sleeves for Individual Slides." The chapter gives both a good overview of the issues related to the care of slides and also serves as a useful quick reference for the types of supplies needed to provide slide collections with the care they need.

Reading 1

Wilhelm, H. (1993). Chapter 16: Storage Environment: Relative Humidity, Temperature, Air Pollution, Dust, and Fungus. The Permanence and Care of Color Photographs: Traditional and Digital Color Prints, Color Negatives, Slides, and Motion Pictures (pp. 539-574). Grinnell, Iowa: Preservation Publishing Company.
ISBN: 0-911515-00-3

I chose this chapter as my first reading assignment because Brad Cook indicated that maintaining a suitable environment is the first and most important step in preserving photographs and pointed out this chapter as a good overview of that topic.

Wilhelm begins by stating that the first preservation decision each archivist must make is how long he or she wants a group of photographs or films to remain usable. This decision, which balances practical considerations, such as budgets and the facilities available to the archivist, against the desire to preserve materials for as long as possible, will guide all subsequent preservation decisions. After a case study of environmental neglect at the George Eastman House International Museum of Photography, the author lays out general recommendations for the storage environment of photographs and films in a useful chart on page 544 that summarizes the content of the rest of the chapter.

He recommends that photographs be stored in a cool, dry place, noting that relative humidity is the most important aspect of the environment to regulate in order to preserve black-and-white prints and negatives (30% RH is ideal and levels above 50% unacceptable) while temperature has the greatest influence on the lifespan of color prints (for every 10 degrees Fahrenheit the temperature is reduced, the useful life of the color print will double). He also notes that preventing dramatic fluctuations in RH is even more important than maintaining a low RH, with fluctuations of less than plus or minus 2% ideal. Fungus should not grow at an RH of under 40% and air pollutant levels should be kept as low as practicable, though Wilhelm points out that efforts to maintain low levels of pollutants will be a waste of time if proper temperatures and RH are not maintained. Photographs should not be stored in areas where there is any possibility of flooding, such as in basements or rooms with pipes. He also recommends that buildings housing photographs be constructed of non-combustible materials, contain fire-detection systems, and have a fire-suppression system that does not rely on water. For the design of environmentally-controlled storage facilities, Wilhelm recommends Bonner Systems, Inc. He recommends Cargocaire for dehumidifiers and suggests avoiding silica-gel as a humidity control since it is often ineffective. He also notes that it is important to recalibrate hygrometers every six months.

In the main body of the article, Wilhelm expands on each of these points, examining in detail, for instance, how different levels of relative humidity and cycling RH levels impact various types of photographs. He also compares and contrasts specific companies and products throughout the chapter, comparing the merits, for instance, of various types of air conditioners and dehumidifiers. In addition, he also discusses methods of dealing with pests and controlling dust, which are not included in the table on page 544. He concludes with a case study of the Newberry Library and its building design and environmental control.

Overall, the chapter serves as a good overview of how environmental conditions can damage or, if properly controlled, help preserve photographs and film. Wilhelm discusses each aspect of the environment concisely, but thoroughly, and he offers a variety of solutions for controlling each one, ranging from solutions most appropriate for large museums to those which can be implemented by an amateur photographer in his or her home.